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CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access. It is a technique used for digital communication, and wireless technology in particular, that involves multiplexing. Whereas conventional communication systems use constant frequencies, CDMA uses multiple access, or multiplexing. Multiplexing, in this case accomplished through the specific type known as spread spectrum, uses varied frequencies to transmit audio signals. This, coupled with code division which requires a certain code to send and receive the frequency, further protects CDMA communications from interference.

Radio systems, one of the earliest forms of telecommunication, required users to have distinct frequencies. Two earlier forms of wireless communication illustrated the limits of methods previous to CDMA. Frequency Division Multiple Access or FDMA only allowed users to operate on a single frequency. For instance, when tuning in to a radio to get sound, a listener must select one frequency or the other. The listener must also tune the frequency to filter out noise in the spectrum that is not associated with one frequency or the other.

The other form of early radio communication was Time Division Multiple Access or TDMA. In this case, users could not share a frequency and each user had to coordinate his or her turn on that frequency in order to communicate. Both FDMA and TDMA posed restrictions for early users, particularly the military. As early as World War II, the military needed to communicate across vast distances that required wireless technology. That was also the case for their adversaries. Military communication units did not have time to wait their turn to transmit sound, or to find a frequency.

Previous telecommunication systems allowed military communication units to transmit sound into the same spectrum their adversaries used. The military’s signals needed a unique identification through a distinct code to avoid interference from enemy communication. The receiver of that message on the other end could similarly retrieve the message based on its unique code in the spectrum.

Just as the radio moved from military use to commercial use, so too was the case with the wireless technology. CDMA became the early choice for personal communication because it could allow multiple users to communicate within the spectrum, avoiding interference or blocking among users. In 1999, CDMA became the standard technology for the telecommunications industry for its growing wireless systems. Since there are large numbers of users in the system communicating at the same time, code division ensures that each user’s signal remains separate in the spectrum.

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A dial tone is the signal you hear on a telephone before you dial a phone number. In most instances, the signal disappears after you dial the first number.

The dial tone was widely established as telephone systems became automated, starting around 1947. Prior to that, a person had to talk with a switchboard operator in order to connect with another party. When the operator was no longer necessary, many people assumed their phone wasn’t working because they heard no sound on the line. The dial tone was created so the caller knew the phone was indeed connected and working before making the call.

At home or in an office, several phones can share the same telephone line. The use of the dial tone also eliminates confusion if one party picks up the phone and the line is being used elsewhere.

The early dial tone resembled a buzzing sound and was created by a motor driven machine. Today, the sound of the dial tone in North America is that of two interfering frequencies of 350 and 440 Hz (Hertz). These signals correspond to the concert pitches of “A” and “F” respectively. Most of Europe uses a single dial tone of 425 Hz.

The dial tone has also been adapted to let the telephone user know of voicemail or other calling features. This is done via a stuttered dial tone when the phone is picked up.

In general, cell phones do not use a dial tone. If the phone is off, then the user knows it is not in use since there is only one “line” per phone. The number can be dialed ahead of time, and the “send” button replaces the dial tone. A recent incarnation of the cell phone, however, designed for older generations, uses a dial tone when the phone is opened.

Other common telephone tones include the disconnect tone that the telephone makes when the other party hangs up, the busy signal, and the loud tone that the phone makes when the receiver is off the hook. There are also several special information tones. These are the three-beep tones used by the phone company prior to the recorded messages that explain why the call did not go through.

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Email is simply the shortened form of electronic mail, a protocol for receiving, sending and storing electronic messages. Email has gained popularity with the spread of the Internet. In many cases, email has become the preferred method of communication.

Though there is some degree of uncertainty as to when e-mail was invented, the father of the modern version is generally regarded to be American Ray Tomlinson. Before Tomlinson, messages could be sent between users but only those connected to the same computer. They could not be targeted to a particular individual. Tomlinson devised a way to address email to certain users and thus was credited for one of the most important communication inventions in the 20th century.

Tomlinson’s idea was to identify the name of the user and the computer at which they were located. As a result, the basic formula for addressing an email was username@usercomputer. This standard has not changed over the years, other than the user computer now commonly being replaced by the name of an email provider. In many cases, this is the same as the user’s Internet service provider.

The influence of email cannot be overstated. The United States Postal Service, for example, notes that it handles 212 billion pieces of mail per year. Many sources have nearly that many e-mails being sent back and forth every single day. In other words, email handles more than 300 times the amount of mail of the largest postal system in the world.

In many cases, users receive, send and store email based on one of two standards, SMTP or POP. SMTP stands for simple message transfer protocol. POP stands for Post Office Protocol. Though there is some amount of confusion over what these two protocols mean, the explanation is rather simple. POP is a protocol for storage of email. SMTP is a protocol for sending and receiving.

In the beginning, email usage required having a program dedicated to the application, or at least having an email service provider with a system set up to handle it. The software for the application is called email client software. Some common programs include: Microsoft Outlook, Outlook Express, Thunderbird, Opera Mail, Eudora and Pegasus Mail. Many are available for free through open sources.

In addition to accessing electronic mail through email client software, Webmail has also become very popular. Most email service providers offer this as an additional benefit, where the user can access their mailbox over the Internet. Some email services are specifically designed using the World Wide Web as its primary interface. These sites, such as Yahoo! Mail, Google Mail and Hotmail have become very popular, as they offer individuals a chance to open an email account at no charge.

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Speech Synthesis Markup Language or SSML is one of three types of markup language used to create voice enabled functionality with Internet browsers and email programs. Sometimes used as a stand-alone approach, SSML is also sometimes used in tandem with Spoken Text Marketup Language (STML) and Java Speech Markup Language (JSML). The ultimate goal of SSML is to provide applications that allow persons to use voice commands with various online tasks such as searching the Internet, receiving and responding to emails, and enjoying the content of various web sites.

Speech synthesis applications using SSML are commonly utilized with interactive telephony applications, especially online. This type of XML-based markup language allows for excellent sound clarity while also ensuring the audio signal produced is concise and free of any translation issues. While not necessarily the most popular option with offline telephony applications, SSML can be utilized with point to point connections that are not carried over the Internet.

Another common application of SSML has to do with the creation of audio books. Using speech synthesis software of this type makes it possible to quickly convert the printed word into the spoken word. This particular application makes it possible for persons who are visually impaired to enjoy just about any type of reading material, including books that are somewhat obscure and may not be mass produced in an audio format.

The use of SSML goes beyond simply creating a collection of words that are pronounced correctly. Functions within the scope of SSML also allow for the introduction of pace, variance in voice level and pitch, and inflection. In some cases, programs created using SSML as the core application can also allow for the inclusion of regional accents. This function can be especially helpful with reading material that revolves around the unique culture of a given location, or involves characters with a particular cultural background.

Like all speech synthesis applications, SSML is intended to broaden the range of people who can make use of electronic communications. Because of innovations of this type, the Internet and modern communication technology can be effectively utilized by people with various types of physical limitations.

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Model Talker converts English text to speech by using a computer and the natural voice of the person recording to imitate natural speech as closely as possible. Model Talker is one of a new generation of software applications that is designed to be especially helpful to those who are losing their voices yet want to retain the qualities of natural speech. The company was testing its beta version in 2008.

Once available on the open market, Model Talker promises to revolutionize the way those with speech-inhibiting diseases, such as ALS, communicate. It will offer another alternative as they try to communicate with the outside world and it will do so in their natural voice. The only limitation to this is that the Model Talker TTS system can only work if the person makes their initial recordings while their voice is still in good condition.

Those wishing to set up a synthesized voice with the Model Talker will be required to record a number of hours of audio. A number of common phrases will be recorded, but the system will also mix and match different vocal sounds to create words. These individual sounds are called phonemes. Even if an exact phrase is not recorded, the text to phoneme feature can help create many more words than the actual ones being recorded.

Though there are other voice synthesizers on the market, the big advantage with the Model Talker is that the user’s voice serves as a model. For some, their voice is an important part of their identity and they would like to keep that part of them intact. Model Talker is the pioneer in allowing users to do that.

The Model Talker synthesized voice can be used on the computer or with a speech generating device supported by the SAPI 5.1 standard. At some point, the product could even be available for smartphones with the Windows Mobile system.

While the software has made huge advances in text to speech systems, the Model Talker does have some distinct limitations. The most noticeable one may be in the voice quality itself. While the synthesized voice may have the user’s particular sound, it will still sound somewhat awkward and robotic. Model Talker acknowledges there are more natural sounding synthetic voices in use, but notes these often take many more hours of recording under optimum studio conditions. The company claims its software is just as sophisticated as the larger commercial products.

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A Neo-Luddite is someone who believes that the use of technology has serious ethical, moral, and social ramifications. Operating under this belief, Neo-Luddites are cautious to promote early adoption of technology, and while they are not necessarily opposed to technology, they would prefer to see a more serious discussion of the role of technology in society. Some Neo-Luddites actually dislike technology, opting for a life of “voluntary simplicity,” but this is not always the case.

The term “Luddite” comes from a political movement during the Industrial Revolution. The Luddites disliked the spread of mechanical devices such as mechanized looms to accomplish tasks which were formerly performed by people. They held marches, destroyed factories, and engaged in other types of activism in an attempt to prevent further technological development. Ultimately, the Luddites were unsuccessful, but when people started to question technology in large numbers again in the 1970s, they revived the concept, calling themselves the “New Luddites,” and the Neo-Luddite movement was born.

As a general rule, people who have questions about the use of technology do not use the term today. Instead, it is used in a deprecating way by advocates of technology, to suggest that the thinking of Neo-Luddites is outdated and outmoded. The fantastic failure of the original Luddite movement is sometimes cited as an argument that opposition to technology is ultimately fruitless.

The Neo-Luddite position is that rather than assuming that technology is always neutral or even beneficial, people should think about the ramifications of technology. For example, advanced life support systems now allow people to live much longer than was possible in previous eras, but these lives are not always fulfilling or happy. Technology is also used in a variety of ways which could be perceived as harmful; for example, several cities use extensive surveillance systems to keep an eye on the populace, which many people see as a breach of privacy.

Most people would not argue with the Neo-Luddite idea that technology is changing human society, and sometimes even shifting what it means to be human. Stopping to think about the effect of technology on society is the main goal of many Neo-Luddites, some of whom freely admit that some technology can be very beneficial. As often happens with small movements which are critical of a larger social trend, the voices of Neo-Luddites are often overwhelmed by a fringe minority, making it hard for the voice of reason to be heard. Fans of technology criticize the Neo-Luddite position, arguing that the benefits of advances in technology far outweigh the potential problems and risks.

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Whisper mode is a cellular phone setting available on many phones and headsets produced by Samsung Mobile. By amplifying the power of the phone’s microphone, it allows the speaker to talk more quietly, while still being heard and understood by the person on the receiving end of the call. Whisper mode can be useful in relaying private or confidential information, but can still cause a serious breech of etiquette when used in inappropriate ways.

Many people have had the unpleasant experience of having to listen to the shouted cell phone conversation of a person nearby. While it can be an interesting source of gossip, it can also be a serious imposition on anyone close enough to listen. The quieting ability of this mode is meant to reduce the volume at which you speak, allowing you to talk in a normal or quiet tone regardless of the nearby noise level.

If you are in a loud or crowded environment and on your cell phone, it can be useful for the other person to have whisper capabilities on their phone. By increasing the sensitivity of their microphone, they will be more audible to you despite whatever audio distractions are occurring. It can also eliminate the need for you to shout into the phone in order to be heard over the noise around you. Be sure to avoid raising your voice if you have whisper mode turned on, as you will be extremely loud to the person on the other end of the call.

Whisper mode can be useful if you are relaying confidential information by telephone. Many automated systems reached by phone now require you to give personal information to access accounts or services, such as your social security number, birth date, full name, or password. By using whisper mode, you may be able to protect your information from anyone near by. In an age of extreme vulnerability to identity theft, this can truly help save your information from getting out to thieves.

While whisper mode is meant to increase phone etiquette, it can actually have a reverse effect. Many atmospheric areas, such as movie theaters, restaurants or museums, have strict rules forbidding the use of cell phones. Some people may interpret whisper mode as a way to get around these rules, since you will be speaking quietly. This is a serious breech of politeness, and may not buy you the privacy you are seeking. In quiet locations, whispered conversation is still likely to be overheard, and in fact may make people unconsciously more inclined to try to hear what you are saying.

Whisper mode comes as a standard feature on many Samsung Mobile phones. It is usually reachable through the menu, and can often be activated from the tools section of your cell phone. Samsung brand phones are available through most major cell phone carriers, including T-Mobile, Verizon and Metro PCS. If you are interested in getting a phone with whisper technology, be sure to check with your carrier to see which models include the feature as a standard.

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FireWire is the brand name for the IEEE 1394 High Speed Serial Bus developed and marketed by Apple, Inc. The idea of FireWire was first conceived in the 1980’s. Developments in technology through the early 1990’s led to the official introduction of the device in 1995.

The research that led to the development of FireWire included the involvement of a number of well-known electronics and technology based firms. Along with major contributions made by Apple, such companies as IBM, Sony, and Texas Instruments also were actively involved in the work group that developed the end product. Work on the device continued for several years before being introduced to the public.

FireWire is now firmly established in the industry, and is utilized with a number of products. One of the first applications was to add a FireWire port to digital camcorders. This enhancement helped to increase the quality of uploading captured images and video to computer systems and desktops. Today, this application of FireWire is considered standard.

While FireWire is the brand name utilized for the Apple product, Sony has also introduced a similar type of USB or universal serial bus under the brand name of i.LINK. As the application began to move beyond use with camcorders and into other forms of electronic data transfer, both products have continued to go under enhancements that make the use of the device more versatile than ever.

Today, the use of FireWire and i.LINK are found with many different devices. Digital video cameras are a common example. Many of the temporary data storage devices like the jump drive use FireWire technology for rapid uploading, storage, and eventual transfer of all sorts of data and media. The fact that FireWire does not have to utilize a computer system in order to capture and store data make it especially effective for people on the go. For example, images captured on a digital camera today can be downloaded directly to a printer, with no need to use a laptop or desktop computer as a connecting device to process the printing of the images.

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A teraflop is a computing term used to define the number of floating point operations a computer processor can perform per second. Used to measure computing performance, floating-point operations per second or FLOPS determine how many floating point mathematical operations can be handled by a computer’s processor. The largest computers in the world use chips that work in Teraflops, trillions of operations per second. The teraflop computers are typically found in research facilities both educational and military.

While the number of FLOPS a computer can handle is only part of the equation in determining the computer speed and things like disk input/output (i/o) and memory usage can play an important role, the improvement in the number of flops and advancements in processing power and technology certainly keep things interesting.

In May of 2008, the United States military engineered a super computer that could perform one quadrillion calculations per second. It is as of this writing the only known computer capable of petaflop processing speeds.

With the research being done by the military and educational institutions around the country, all types of computer chips can benefit from this research. For example, graphics chips have especially come a long way and process many more FLOPS than the typical CPU.

In terms of the power of a personal computer, the more calculations per second a system can handle, the more operations the user of that system can perform. There will be other limitations, the Operating system size and hardware usage will affect performance and the amount of applications being used at one time will affect performance, but advances in chip performance showcased in the super computers of today will definitely affect the desktop PCs being released in the future.

To provide an idea of how fast a teraflop microchip operates, an average calculator, which performs a single operation, has a chip speed of about 10 Flops. This is fast enough for the human interacting with the calculator to see its operation as instantaneous. It is almost as if a teraflop would have a calculation finished for 2.2 2.3 before the operator even realized the equals key had been pressed.

There aren’t any Teraflop capable PCs just yet, however the average PC in 2008 can handle around fifty-one Gigaflops and the technology exists to push PCs to be faster every day. With more computers being produced and sold in the world now than ever before, the need for faster technology is very apparent.

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Iridium flares are nothing more than the sun’s reflection off the communications satellites owned by the Iridium Satellite company and used for satellite phone service. The antennas of these satellites are positioned in such a way that they can brilliantly reflect the sunlight, producing a brief spectacle in the night sky, known as a glint. Sometimes, the flare is so bright, it can even be seen during the day.

The antennas that produce the iridium flares seen from the ground are not what many may imagine when they hear the word. Rather than being made from iridium, a metal similar to platinum and used for its harness, the antennas on these satellites are plates of highly reflective aluminum. Each satellite has three antennas with a height of 6.2 feet (188 cm) and a width of 2.5 feet (86 cm).

Iridium flares are different from the normal occurrence of seeing a satellite cross the night sky. In darker areas, seeing satellites is a commonplace event. Stargazers can readily point these out to newcomers as they see them move steadily from one side of the horizon to the other, sometimes fading in and out of view.

Instead of these typical occurrences, Iridium flares are a brilliant flash of light as the satellite’s antenna catches the sun at just the right moment. They usually only last a few seconds, so unless stargazers are actually looking for them, they can be quite easy to miss. However, with some 66 active Iridium satellites in orbit, there are plenty of opportunities.

It is hard to say for certain when the first glint was spotted, but photographs of the flares date back to 1997. At the time, the flares were considered unpredictable. Those wishing to see them now, however, have an advantage. Astronomers can predict when and where they will take place and websites detailing this information have been created. In addition to predicting when Iridium flares will pass within your view of the horizon, these websites can also predict other passings of satellites, the space shuttle and the International Space Station.

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